Hinduism (known as
in modern Indian languages
["Hindu Dharma" in modern Indian languages such as Hindi, Bengali and other contemporary Indo-Aryan languages, as well as in several Dravidian tongues including Tamil and Kannada.]) is a
religious tradition[Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, Gavin, "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood (2003), pp. 1-17.] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also sometimes referred to as
(), a
Sanskrit phrase meaning "eternal
law".
[The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform movements (J. Zavos, ''Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India'', Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," ''Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism'', edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987).]
Hinduism, many of whose origins can be traced to the ancient
Vedic civilization,
is the world's oldest extant religion.
A conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions, Hinduism has no single founder.
It is also the world's
third largest religion following
Christianity and
Islam, with approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in
India and
Nepal.
Other
countries with large Hindu populations include
Bangladesh,
Sri Lanka,
Pakistan,
Indonesia,
Malaysia,
Singapore,
Mauritius,
Fiji,
Suriname,
Guyana and
Trinidad and Tobago.
Hinduism contains a vast body of scriptures. Divided as
revealed and
remembered and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of
dharma (religious living). In the orthodox view, among such texts, the ''
Vedas'' and the ''
Upanishads'' are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the
Tantras, the sectarian
Agamas, the ''
'' and the
epics ''
'' and ''
''. The ''
'', a treatise excerpted from the '''', is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''.
[The ''Gita Dhyanam'' is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the ''Bhagavad Gita''. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them. ()]
Beliefs
Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations.
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include ''
Dharma'' (ethics/duties), ''
'' (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), ''
Karma'' (action and subsequent reaction), ''
Moksha'' (liberation from ''samsara''), and the various
yogas (paths or practices).
Concept of God
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning
monotheism,
polytheism,
,
pantheism,
monism and
atheism. It is sometimes referred to as
henotheistic (devotion to a single "God" while accepting the existence of other gods), but any such term is an oversimplification of the complexities and variations of belief.
[ See and ]
Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the
ātman—is eternal.
According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as
Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from
Brahman, the supreme spirit.
Brahman is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist."
The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's
atman (soul) is identical to
Brahman, the supreme soul.
The
Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom)
[See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).]
Other schools (for example,
Dvaita Vedanta) and other (
bhakti) schools, understand
Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with deities such as
Vishnu,
Brahma,
Shiva or
Shakti depending on the sect. The ātman is dependent on God while Moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.
When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called ''
Ishvara'' ("The Lord"
), ''
Bhagavan'' ("The Auspicious One"
), or ''Parameshwara'' ("The Supreme Lord"
).
[ However, interpretations of ''Ishvara'' vary—ranging from non-belief such as followers of Mimamsakas, in ''Ishvara'' to identifying ''Brahman'' and ''Ishvara'' as one as in Advaita.]
Devas and avatars
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities, called ''
Devas'' (or '
in feminine form; ' used synonymously for Deva in Hindi means 'divinity' in Sanskrit), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".
[For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods as the heavenly or shining ones" see: . In ISKCON the word is translated as "demigods". See: . For translation of '''' as "godhead, divinity", see: .] The ''devas'' are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in
art,
architecture and through
icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in the
Itihasa and
Puranas. They are however often distinguished from
Ishvara, a supreme personal God, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in a particular form as their '''', or chosen ideal;
the choice being based upon their individual preference,
and regional and family traditions.
Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form, in order to restore ''dharma'' in society and guide humans to ''moksha'' (liberation from the cycle of rebirth). Such an incarnation is called an ''avatar''. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu, and include Rama (protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).
Karma, samsara and moksha
''Karma'' translates literally as action, work or deed
and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".
According to the
Upanishads, an individual, known as the ''jiva-atma'', develops
sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The "linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.
Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to
reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of
free will and
destiny.
This cycle of ''action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth'' is a continuum called
samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The
Bhagavad Gita states that:
{{Cquote|As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,
similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)
[ Bhagavad Gita 2.22]}}
Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through
moksha (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.
[See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20][See Swami Vivekananda, ''Jnana Yoga'' 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an ''atman'' eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as ''
moksha'', ''
nirvana'' or ''
samadhi'', is described as the realization of one's union with God; realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from ''samsara'' and ends the cycle of rebirth.
The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example,
Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of
Dvaita (
dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a
loka (heaven),
[The concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or ''loka'' are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God. ] in the company of their chosen form of ''Ishvara''. Thus, it is said, the followers of ''dvaita'' wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."
The goals of life
Classical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma.
The
Grihastha Dharma recognize four goals known as the ''
''. They are:
# ''
'': Sensual pleasure and enjoyment
# ''
Artha'': Material prosperity and success
# ''
Dharma'': Correct action, in accordance with one's particular duty and scriptural laws # ''
Moksha'': Liberation from the cycle of
samsara
Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role:
dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing moksha, at the horizon.
The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described
below, the Grihasthi eventually enters this stage. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in.
Yoga
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (
yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. A practitioner of yoga is called a ''
yogi''. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the
Bhagavad Gita, the
Yoga Sutras, the
Hatha Yoga Pradipika and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the
Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (
moksha,
samadhi, or
nirvana) include:
Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion),
Karma Yoga (the path of right action),
Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) and
Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom).
An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some devotional schools teach that
bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the age of
Kali yuga (one of four epochs part of the
Yuga cycle).
[For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." ()] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of ''jnana yoga'', is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of ''bhakti yoga''), and vice versa.
["One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." ()] Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in ''raja yoga'') must embody the core principles of ''karma yoga'', ''jnana yoga'' and ''bhakti yoga'', whether directly or indirectly.
History
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late
Neolithic to the
early Harappan period (5500–2600
BCE).
[T. Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. ] The Vedas center on worship of deities such as ''Indra'', ''Varuna'' and ''Agni'', and on the ''Soma'' ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called '''' and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and with other Indo-European religions.[The '''' deity ''Dyaus'', regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (''gen. of'' Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Tiu/Ziu in Germanic mythologyhttp://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE117.html, cf. English 'Tues-day'. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.] During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' were written roughly from 500–100BCE,[.] although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period.[.] The epics contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.
Three key events underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought. These were the Upanishads, Mahavira (founder of Jainism) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism).[ Olivelle, Patrick, ''"The renouncer tradition"'', in ] The Upanishads, Mahavira and Buddha taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system; Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.[.] Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE.
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.[J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in ]
Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West.
Scriptures and theology
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times."
[Vol I][Vol III ]
The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.
Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them.
[ Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classified into two classes: ''Shruti'' and ''Smriti''.]
''Shruti'' (lit: that which is heard) refers to the ''Vedas'' which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (''s''),[ ] some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a God or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.[Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal.][Vol II]
There are four Vedas (called '', Sāma- Yajus- ''and ''Atharva-''). The ''Rigveda'' is the first and most important Veda.[Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts.] Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the ''Veda proper'', being the '''', which contains sacred ''mantras''. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the ''''. These are: the '''', '''', and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the ' (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ' (knowledge portion).[What is Veda? , Vedah.com] While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss Brahman and reincarnation.
Hindu texts other than the ''Shrutis'' are collectively called the ''Smritis'' (memory).[The Smritis by Swami Sivananda] The most notable of the smritis are the '''' (epics), which consist of the '''' and the ''''. '''' is an integral part of the ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from ''Krishna'', an incarnation of ''Vishnu'', told to the prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The '''' is described as the essence of the ''Vedas.''[''gāvo,'' etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', ''cited in'' Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is .] The Smritis also include the ''s'', which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives. There are texts with a sectarian nature such as '''', the ''Tantras'', the ''Yoga Sutras'', ''Tirumantiram'', ''Shiva Sutras'' and the ''Hindu ''. A more controversial text, the ''Manusmriti'', is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the caste system.
Practices
Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in (worship or veneration),
) either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to the individual's chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory,
In fact, many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through
icons (
murtis). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshipper and God.
The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The
Padma Purana states that the '''' is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.
[''.''] A few Hindu sects, such as the
, do not believe in worshiping God through icons.
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable
Om (which represents the ''Parabrahman'') and the
Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as
tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus,
chakra and
veena, with particular deities.
Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the
Gayatri Mantra or
Mahamrityunjaya mantras. The epic
Mahabharata extolls
Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the
Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age). Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice.
Rituals and ceremonies
The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.
[{{cite web]
| url = http://www.religionsofindia.org/loc/india_religious_life.html
| title = Religious Life
| accessdate = 2007-04-19
| work = Religions of India
| publisher = Global Peace Works
}} Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.
[{{cite web]
| url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0055)
| title = Domestic Worship
| accessdate = 2007-04-19
|date=September 1995
| work = Country Studies
| publisher = The Library of Congress
}} However, observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing
devotional hymns,
meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.
[ A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.][ Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.][ Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now only occasional practices although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic mantras are still the norm.]
Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste youths), Shraadh (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name of the deceased).[{{cite web]
| url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0056)
| title = Life-Cycle Rituals
| accessdate = 2007-04-19
|date=September 1995
| work = Country Studies: India
| publisher = The Library of Congress
}}[{{cite web]
| url = http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0516.htm | title = Shraddha
|last=Banerjee |first=Suresh Chandra | accessdate = 2007-04-20 | work = Banglapedia
| publisher = Asiatic Society of Bangladesh }} For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[ On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children under five. Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre.]
Pilgrimage and festivals
Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism though many adherents undertake them. Hindus recognise several Indian holy cities, including
Allahabad,
Haridwar,
Varanasi, and
Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include
Puri, which hosts a major
Vaishnava Jagannath temple and
Rath Yatra celebration;
Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and
Katra, home to the
Vaishno Devi temple. The four holy sites
Puri,
Rameswaram,
Dwarka, and
Badrinath (or alternatively the
Himalayan towns of
Badrinath,
Kedarnath,
Gangotri, and
Yamunotri) compose the ''
Char Dham'' (''four abodes'') pilgrimage circuit. The
Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar,
Nashik, and
Ujjain. Another important set of pilgrimages are the
Shakti Peethas, where
the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being
Kalighat and
Kamakhya.
Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The
Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the
Indian subcontinent. Some widely observed Hindu festivals are
Dussera or
Durga Puja,
Diwali (the festival of lights),
Ganesh Chaturthi,
Maha Shivaratri,
Ram Navami,
Krishna Janmastami,
Holi.
Society
Denominations
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.
However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations:
Vaishnavism,
Shaivism,
Shaktism and
Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the God worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that God.
Vaishnavas worship ''
Vishnu'';
Shaivites worship ''
Shiva'';
Shaktas worship ''
Shakti'' (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, ''
Devi''; while
Smartists believe in the essential sameness of all deities.
There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami
Dayananda Saraswati's ''
Arya Samaj'', which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire sacrifices (''
''). The
Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes:
}}
As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own.
Heresy is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.
Ashramas
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four ''
s'' (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery).
The first part of one's life, ''Brahmacharya,'' the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a
Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. ''Grihastha'' is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies ''
'' and ''artha'' in one's married and professional life respectively (see the
goals of life). The moral obligations of a Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. '','' the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in '''', the stage of
asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for
Moksha.
[S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", in ]
Monasticism
Some Hindus choose to live a
monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of
liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity,
celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.
A Hindu monk is called a ''sanyāsī,
sādhu'', or ''
swāmi''.
A female renunciate is called a ''sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.
It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.
Varnas and the caste system
Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called ''Varnas'' (''Sanskrit'': "colour, form, appearance");
Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.
Although the scriptures, since the Rigveda (10.90), contain passages that clearly sanction the ''Varna'' system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion. Both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the ''Vedas,'' strongly sustain the division of society into four classes (varna) but place little emphasis on the caste system, mentioning it rarely and in a cursory manner. A verse from the
Rig Veda indicates that a person's occupation was not necessarily determined by that of his family:
'' divisions are created by God, and the ''
'' categorizes the different castes.
Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the ''Gītā'' says that one's '''' is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage ''
'' was a king of the ''
'' caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, ''
'', once a low-caste robber, ''became'' a sage. ''
'', another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman (Sabhlok, Prem.
Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics . Page 21).
}}
In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the ''Shudras'' listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.
[White Yajurveda 26.2] Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists.
Many social reformers, including
Mahatma Gandhi and
B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination.
[Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," in ] The religious teacher
Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that
}}
Ahimsa and vegetarianism
Hindus advocate the practice of '''' (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.
[Monier-Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' (New Delhi, 1974 edition)] The term '
appears in the Upanishads,[For ]' as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p. 125. and '''' is the first of the five ''Yamas'' (vows of self-restraint) in
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.
[For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of ' as "vow of self-restraint", see: Taimni, p. 206.]
In accordance with ', many Hindus embrace
vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a requirement, it is recommended for a ''
satvic'' (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of
lacto vegetarians in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.
[ Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: Diary and poultry sector growth in India , Indian consumer patterns and Agri reform in India . Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. ] The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.
[Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.] Some Hindus avoid
onion and
garlic, which are regarded as ''
rajasic'' foods. Some avoid meat on specific holy days.
Observant
Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from
beef. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied heavily on the cow for
protein-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus, it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.
Conversion
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of
religious conversion, the question of whether Hindus should
evangelize is open to interpretation.
Those who see Hinduism mainly as a philosophy or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and considering oneself a Hindu.
Others view Hinduism as an ethnicity more than as a religion and believe one can only become a Hindu by being born into a Hindu family. Such people tend to assume that only people with Indian ancestry can be Hindus.
[Bharatiya Janata Party History ''The eternal religion's defining moment in time''] The Supreme Court of India has taken the former view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.
[''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' http://www.hinduismtoday.com/in-depth_issues/RKMission.html]
There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called ''dīkshā'' ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life. Most Hindu sects do not actively recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.
[See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5] Nevertheless, Hindu "missionary" groups operate in various countries to provide spiritual guidance to persons of any religion. Examples include the
Vedanta Society,
Parisada Hindu Dharma,
International Society for Krishna Consciousness,
Arya Samaj and the
Self-Realization Fellowship.
Notes
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Further reading
Guenon, R., "''Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines''", 2001 (first French edition 1921), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-74-8
Guenon, R., "''Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta''", Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-62-4
Guenon, R., "''Studies in Hinduism''", Sophia Perennis
Supreme Court of India, ''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal ''.